linux – ExpLinux

Free Tools for Linux Users

explinux — Tue, 07 Jan 2025 15:42:46 +0000

Here I will share some useful online tools for Linux users:

Chmod Calculator :

There is a site swaswas which provides a tool with 3d and interactive view for chmod calculator.
We can see all via 3D view and it has sticky bit , GID and UID . Even you have to just click and see which permission required . It will show you symbolic mode as well which wil be helpful ifyou just want to use that or when we do ls command we can see correct permission set or not. Tool link : chmod calculator

Crontab Calculator :

There is a site called crontab guru ,it will provide you all crontab expressions and very useful tool if you are a admin but even you are a user this tool will help you to correctly schedule a cronjob . Awesome visuals and design .
Tool link : crontab.guru

100 Best Use Cases of Find Command in Linux -ExpLinux

explinux — Mon, 20 Feb 2023 20:05:50 +0000

Find Command In Linux

Find Command in linux

The very popular Linux admins friend find command in Linux was created as a part of the Unix operating system by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in the golden era of new computer development in the 1970s. Thompson and Ritchie were two of the pioneer developers of the Unix operating system and also developed the mother of most programming language C programming language, C is mostly used for developing software for Unix-based systems. The find command in Linux and Unix operating systems is still widely used today for searching for files and directories on a system and performing operations on them.

Some Alternatives of Find Command

Top 100 Use Cases of Find Command

Please find below examples

SN	Use	Command
1	Find files in a specific directory:	find /path/to/directory -type f
2	Find directories in a specific directory:	find /path/to/directory -type d
3	Find files with a specific name:	find /path/to/directory -name “file_name”
4	Find files with a specific extension:	find /path/to/directory -name “*.extension”
5	Find files based on their size:	find /path/to/directory -size +10M
6	Find files based on their modification time:	find /path/to/directory -mtime +7
7	Find files based on their access time:	find /path/to/directory -atime +7
8	Find files based on their inode number:	find /path/to/directory -inum 123456
9	Find files that are readable:	find /path/to/directory -perm -444
10	Find files that are writable:	find /path/to/directory -perm -222
11	Find files that are executable:	find /path/to/directory -perm -111
12	Find files that are owned by a specific user:	find /path/to/directory -user user_name
13	Find files that are owned by a specific group:	find /path/to/directory -group group_name
14	Find files with a specific user ID:	find /path/to/directory -uid 123456
15	Find files with a specific group ID:	find /path/to/directory -gid 123456
16	Find files that match a specific pattern:	find /path/to/directory -regex “.pattern.”
17	Find files that contain a specific word or phrase:	find /path/to/directory -type f -exec grep -q “word or phrase” {} \; -print
18	Find files that are symbolic links:	find /path/to/directory -type l
19	Find files that are hard links:	find /path/to/directory -type f -links +1
20	Find files that are empty:	find /path/to/directory -empty
21	Find files that are not empty:	find /path/to/directory ! -empty
22	Find files and execute a specific command on each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -exec command {} \;
23	Find files and move them to a new location:	find /path/to/directory -type f -exec mv {} /path/to/new/location \;
24	Find files and delete them	find /path/to/directory -type f -exec rm -i {} \;
25	Find files and copy them to a new location:	find /path/to/directory -type f -exec cp {} /path/to/new/location \;
26	Find files and change the permissions on each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -exec chmod 755 {} \;
27	Find files and change the owner of each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -exec chown user:group {} \;
28	Find files and change the group of each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -exec chgrp group_name {} \;
29	Find files and print the full path of each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -printf “%p\n”
30	Find files and print the size of each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -printf “%s\n”
31	Find files and print the inode number of each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -printf “%i\n”
32	Find files and print the modification time of each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -printf “%T@\n”
33	Find files and print the user name of the owner of each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -printf “%u\n”
34	Find files and print the group name of the owner of each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -printf “%g\n”
35	Find files and print the permissions of each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -printf “%M\n”
36	Find files and execute a command with a specific time limit:	find /path/to/directory -type f -mmin +5 -exec command {} \;
37	Find files and execute a command only if the file has been modified in the last 5 minutes:	find /path/to/directory -type f -mmin -5 -exec command {} \;
38	Find files and execute a command only if the file has not been modified in the last 5 minutes:	find /path/to/directory -type f ! -mmin -5 -exec command {} \;
39	Find files and search for a specific string in each file:	find /path/to/directory -type f -exec grep “string” {} \;
40	Find files and list only the first 10 files that match a specific criteria:	find /path/to/directory -type f -print \| head -10
41	Find files and list only the last 10 files that match a specific criteria:	find /path/to/directory \| head 10
42	Find files and exclude a specific directory from the search:	find /path/to/directory -type f -not -path “/path/to/directory/to/exclude/*” -print
43	Find files and exclude multiple directories from the search:	find /path/to/directory -type f $ -not -path “/path/to/directory/to/exclude/” -and -not -path “/path/to/directory/to/exclude2/” $ -print
44	Find files and search for files with a specific name pattern:	find /path/to/directory -type f -name “*.txt”
45	Find files and search for files with a specific size:	find /path/to/directory -type f -size +100M
46	Find files and search for files smaller than a specific size:	find /path/to/directory -type f -size -100M
47	Find files and search for files larger than a specific size:	find /path/to/directory -type f -size +100M
48	Find files and search for files of an exact size:	find /path/to/directory -type f -size 100M
49	Find files and search for files with a specific user owner:	find /path/to/directory -type f -user user_name
50	Find files and search for files with a specific group owner:	find /path/to/directory -type f -group group_name
51	Find files and search for files with a specific type of permissions:	find /path/to/directory -type f -perm 644
52	Find files and search for files that are writable:	find /path/to/directory -type f -perm -222
53	Find files and search for files that are readable:	find /path/to/directory -type f -perm -444
54	Find files and search for files that are executable:	find /path/to/directory -type f -perm -111
55	Find files and search for files with specific type of executability:	find /path/to/directory -type f -perm /u=x,g=x
56	Find files and search for files that have changed in the last 7 days:	find /path/to/directory -type f -ctime -7
57	Find files and search for files that have changed more than 7 days ago:	find /path/to/directory -type f -ctime +7
58	Find files and search for files that have been modified in the last 7 days:	find /path/to/directory -type f -mtime -7
59	Find files and search for files that have been modified more than 7 days ago:	find /path/to/directory -type f -mtime +7
60	Find files and search for files that have been accessed in the last 7 days:	find /path/to/directory -type f -atime -7
61	Find files and search for files that have not been accessed in the last 7 days:	find /path/to/directory -type f -atime +7
62	Find files and search for files that match multiple criteria:	find /path/to/directory -type f $ -name “.txt” -or -name “.pdf” $ -and -size +100M
63	Find files and delete the files that match certain criteria:	find /path/to/directory -type f -name “*.bak” -delete
64	Find files and print the output in a specific format:	find /path/to/directory -type f -printf “%p %u %g %s\n”
65	Find files and execute a specific command on the matching files:	find /path/to/directory -type f -exec chmod 644 {} \;
66	Find files and limit the number of results to display:	find /path/to/directory -type f -print \| head -10
67	Find files and sort the results by file size:	find /path/to/directory -type f -printf “%s %p\n” \| sort -nr
68	Find files and exclude specific files or directories from the results:	find /path/to/directory -type f $ ! -name “.bak” ! -path “/path/to/directory/to/exclude/” $ -print
69	Find files and search for files based on their inode number:	find /path/to/directory -type f -inum 123456
70	Find files and search for files based on their access time and modification time:	find /path/to/directory -type f -anewer file.txt -or -mnewer file.txt
71	Find files and search for files with a specific type of type:	find /path/to/directory -type l -ls
72	Find files and search for files with a specific type of type and perform an action on them:	find /path/to/directory -type l -exec ls -l {} \;
73	Find files and search for files based on the number of links:	find /path/to/directory -type f -links +5
74	Find files and search for files based on the number of links and perform an action on them:	find /path/to/directory -type f -links +5 -exec ls -l {} \;
75	Find files and search for files based on the type of file system they are on:	find /mnt/c/ -type f -fstype xfs
76	Find files and search for files with a specific owner:	find /path/to/directory -type f -user username
77	Find files and search for files with a specific group:	find /path/to/directory -type f -group groupname
78	Find files and search for files with a specific permissions:	find /path/to/directory -type f -perm 0644
79	Find files and search for files with a specific name and perform a certain action on them:	find /path/to/directory -type f -name “*.log” -exec gzip {} \;
80	Find files and search for files that match a certain pattern and perform a certain action on them:	find /path/to/directory -type f -regex “.*\.$jpg\\|jpeg\\|png$” -exec cp {} /path/to/destination/ \;
81	Find files and search for files that have been modified in the last 7 days and perform a certain action on them:	find /path/to/directory -type f -mtime -7 -exec rm {} \;
82	Find files and search for files that have a specific size and perform a certain action on them:	find /path/to/directory -type f -size +100M -exec mv {} /path/to/destination/ \;
83	Find files and search for files that have a specific size range and perform a certain action on them:	find /path/to/directory -type f -size +10M -size -100M -exec cp {} /path/to/destination/ \;
84	Find files and search for files that have a specific size range and print the results in a specific format:	find /path/to/directory -type f -size +10M -size -100M -printf “%p %u %g %s\n”
85	Find files and search for files that have a specific name and move them to a specific location:	find /path/to/directory -type f -name “*.log” -exec mv {} /path/to/destination/ \;
86	Find files and search for files that have a specific name and copy them to a specific location:	find /path/to/directory -type f -name “*.log” -exec cp {} /path/to/destination/ \;
87	Find files and search for files that have a specific name and count the number of matches:	find /path/to/directory -type f -name “*.log” \| wc -l
88	Find files and search for files that have a specific name and delete the matches:	find /path/to/directory -type f -name “*.log” -delete
89	Find files and search for files that have a specific name and rename the matches:	find /path/to/directory -type f -name “*.log” -exec mv {} {}.bak \;
90	Find files that have been modified in the last day and delete them:	find /path/to/directory -type f -mtime -1 -delete
91	Find files that have been modified in the last 7 days and compress them:	find /path/to/directory -type f -mtime -7 -exec gzip {} \;
92	Find files that have a specific name and show the details in a human-readable format:	find /path/to/directory -type f -name “*.log” -exec stat -c “%n %s %y” {} \;
93	Find all symbolic links and delete them:	find /path/to/directory -type l -delete
94	Find all symbolic links and replace them with their targets:	find /path/to/directory -type l -exec sh -c ‘ln -sf “$(readlink -f “$1″)” “$1″‘ _ {} \;
95	Find all symbolic links that point to a specific location and delete them:	find /path/to/directory -type l -lname “/path/to/link/target” -delete
96	Find all files that are larger than a specific size and delete them:	find /path/to/directory -type f -size +100M -delete
97	Find mp3 files in ext4 filesystem	find /mnt/usb/ -type f -fstype ext4 \| grep -i ‘\.mp3$’
98	Find files that have been modified in the last hour and move them to a different location:	find /path/to/directory -type f -mmin -60 -exec mv {} /path/to/destination/ \;
99	Find commnad in linux with sed command . Find file and replace text mylinux to explinux	find my_files -type f -name ‘*.txt’ -exec sed -i ‘s/mylinux/explinux/g’ {} \;
100	Find process pid status and print from proc	find /proc/1234 -maxdepth 0 -name status -o -name stat -exec cat {} \;

Find Command in Linux – explinux

Feel free to provide you advice and a new or effective way to use the find command in Linux.

Conclusion:

Here we have seen 100 use cases of the find command in Linux and this can be used in a script or in daily use of system admin and troubleshooting tasks using the find command.

A Comprehensive Guide to the “mv” Command for Renaming Files in Linux 2023

explinux — Thu, 19 Jan 2023 19:36:19 +0000

Renaming files in Linux is an important part of basic file management. mv command was written by Ken Thompson. With the “mv” command, you can quickly and easily rename your files in a few simple steps. This guide provides a step-by-step overview of the process so you can get organized fast!

Understand the Basics of the mv Command

The “mv” command is an abbreviation for “move” and is used to rename files or directories in Linux. By using the syntax mv Old_Filename New_Filename, you can move a target file or folder from its current location to a new location you specify. This command also allows you to rename files or folders by simply specifying the same source and destination. This is the most common and useful command for all Linux administrators.

Related article: 22 Linux Commands you should learn now

Move and Rename Files at Once With mv

In addition to renaming files, you can use the mv command to move a file by simply combining both a relocation and naming action into one command. For example, if you have a file called “mysecrete.txt” which is currently in the current working directory and want to move it to the “TopSecrete” folder and rename it as “mynewsecrete.txt”, all you need to do is use the below command:

# mv mysecrete.txt /TopSecrete/mynewsecrete.txt

or If you want to rename on the same directory just use the below command :

# mv mysecrete.txt mynewsecrete.txt

This way, you will be able to move and rename your file in one simple step!

Move Only When Source File is Newer

The mv command offers the option to move only newer source files because sometimes we move files and it rewrites on an existing file, So in case to avoid this situation, we can use the -u option. This is useful in case of backup or backup script and could save your time by not moving unnecessary files, use this command:

# mv -u myimportantfile.txt importantSubdirectory/

Copy a File Directory and Its Contents Using mv

You can copy a file or directory and all its content (subdirectories and files) using the mv command. To do this, simply give the directory name to your command to move the directory to another directory with all data. For example, as shown above you could use as below :

# mv olddirectory Subdirectory/

If you want to move only “olddirectory” content to a Subdirectory use * at end of the directory, it will loop through all contents of the directory and move it and the directory will be empty.

# mv olddirectory/* Subdirectory/

Interactive mv Command for Rename File

mv command never as before rename but in case we want to give confirmation before renaming or moving a Linux file we can use -i (interactive) with the mv command.

If this is the new file and no overwrite then it will rename and move the file without any prompt.

# mv -i myfile.txt yourfile.txt

It will not ask for any confirmation if yourfile.txt does not exist.

But in case of files exist with the same name. So each time before overwriting the file in Linux or moving, IT will prompt for confirmation we can enter “y” or “n” respectively to accept and reject

# # mv -i myfile.txt yourfile.txt
mv: overwrite ‘yourfile.txt’?

It will ask for your confirmation and you can provide your input with “y” or “n” in small letters.

Alternatives of mv Commands

There are many other functions we can perform with other commands too like renaming the “rename” command but this is not installed by default.

“cp” Command to copy files but the original file will not be renamed or moved.

“rsync” and “scp” commands also copy files and we can rename them in the destination folder. These commands are basically used for the remote server’s file copy and sync.

Conclusion

In this article, we have learned how to rename files in Linux with the help of the mv command. Even we have seen some more use cases of the mv command with alternatives that we can think of performing the same kind of operation. But alternatives will keep the source file too.

Hope this helps you understand how to file rename in Linux

We Asked 10 Linux Questions to ChatGPT and We Got Amazing Answers

explinux — Wed, 18 Jan 2023 08:22:38 +0000

What is ChatGPT

If you are very busy and still did not hear about this internet buzz or you see it but did not actually know what it then we are here to tell you.
ChatGPT is a language model developed by OpenAI, it is one of the many AI chatbots of its kind, there are other AI models such as GPT-2 (a predecessor of ChatGPT) developed by OpenAI and other companies like Google, Microsoft, Amazon, and IBM have also developed similar models. Whenever you chat or mail to google or Microsoft every time the chatbot replies to your general queries, only in case of escalation humans are involved.

The inspiration behind the creation of ChatGPT and other AI models like it is to create a machine that can understand and generate human-like text. These models are based on a neural network architecture called the transformer, which has shown to be very effective at natural language processing tasks such as language translation, text summarization, and question answering.

The idea behind creating such models is to make the computer understand human language more efficiently so that it can be used in various industries like customer service, content creation, and more. These models are also being used to improve the accuracy and efficiency of machine learning models in a wide range of applications such as speech recognition, natural language understanding, and others.

Additionally, OpenAI’s goal is to advance AI in a way that is safe for humanity and to provide the most powerful AI technologies to those who will use them to benefit humanity. OpenAI aims to make this available to everyone so that the benefits of AI can be widely distributed.

Who Owns OpenAI?

Elon Musk, Sam Altman,Wojciech Zaremba, Ilya Sutskever,and , Greg Brockman founded OPENAI in 2015 . ELON musk stepped out in 2018 and the current CEO is Sam Altman. The most important event is that Microsoft invested 1 Billion dollars in OpenAI, Maybe in the future, you can see OpenAI features in your Windows Office applications

You may be Interested : Most Important 22 Linux Commands

We have asked 10 Linux questions to ChatGPT, and let’s see how amazing it’s answered it. Did ChatGPT able to clear the Linux System Admin interview?

10 Questions to ChatGPT

Create a User and the password expire in 60 days.

ChatGPT has done good work and is able to give the correct answer to this basic question. So one point to ChatGPT.

How to delete User with home directory?

ChatGPT again did good work it will help you delete the home directory of a user with the user account in Linux. For this question, you don’t need to go to StackOverflow. One point to this AI chatbot.

How to Troubleshoot SSH issues?

Ohh here we are quite disappointed with ChatGPT’s answer because we all know “systemctl status ssh” will give us an error that ssh. service not found. The correct command is “systemctl status sshd“. We are disappointed because if a person with a beginner level works on this then he could try the second step to install the ssh server and in case ssh is installed he will be quite confused that why it not showing service available . The steps provided by ChatGPT AI is quite basic and maybe if we ask the second time we get other options but we have tried once and in one go we got basic steps.

So in this case 0 points to ChatGPT.

How to formate a 4TB harddisk ?

This is a trick question we have asked here ChatGPT failed to give the right answer. If you get what is wrong in this then congrats you are working on a good data center or Big project. If you are thinking about what is wrong with this then let me tell you above 2TB drive we have to use parted command otherwise you will get the error.

So 0 points to ChatGPT on this trick question.

Related : How to use parted command ?

how to create 500 GB LVM from 1 TB raw device in RedHat Linux?

Awesome now as expected we have got out the correct answer from this popular AI chatbot. You can just copy and paste commands to create LVM in Linux just you need to change names as per your device and requirements.

Again ChatGPT has gained 1 more point.

How to extend 16 TB ext4 LVM to 24 TB in Redhat Linux?

Again ChatGPT failed in the trick question if you know then you are a good Linux Engineer. The issue is that we can not increase the ext4 partition by more than 16TB. After 16TB we have to use the xfs partition. So running all those commands will not give you any results.

Zero points to our ChatGPT

How to change all new user’s home directory in /newhome when we create users by default in Redhat Linux?

I think ChatGPT is very good at user management, So you can ask any question related to user management and just follow it because we got again the right answer.

One more point to ChatGPT.

Create a bash script to delete files from /tmp folder which is older than 60 days in RedHat Linux.

This is just a simple script but it did a good job. For old system admins who use the “-exec rm -f {} \;” newer versions of the find command introduce -delete. So we can say that ChatGPT knows the new find command.

We have tried a simple bash script you can check with the complex script, if you like this article then we will ask ChatGPT other bash script questions.

We have to give 1 point to ChatGPT

How to restrict the root to delete the specific file?

This time ChatGPT shows us that it is just an AI, we all know we can not restrict root like that this could be possible partially but not 100% secure. The only two ways to restrict root are to change attribute and use SELinux which can also restrict root until the root user figure out what the issue is.

In our case, we will 0 points to ChatGPT. If you want to try and give more points let us know in the comments.

Related : What is Selinux ?

How to Disable Selinux ?

Create an NFS service dependent on /sanstorage mount point in Redhat Linux.

In this answer, we will give .5 marks to OpeAI chatbot because there are some other methods that we are using to create dependency for NFS and other services. That is correct but anyone can disable this service and start nfsd service.

So .5 for this answer.

Result

The final result for our question answer session of ChatGPT has got 5.5/10.

5.5/10

Conclusion

As we have seen ChatGPT is accurate to do simple and basic level quetions. But when we tried some trick question this AI chatbot is unable to give answers. As per our question answer we see for local user mangement tasks we can just copy paste but for other task we need to rely on our knowledge. For for the level 1 Job you can use ChatGPT with little guidence. ChatGPT is still learning let see when it cross L2 and L3 level.

Hope this will give you a good idea about OpenAI chatbot.

Python Script To SSH and Run Multiple Commands in Linux – Save hours in less than 80 lines

explinux — Fri, 06 Jan 2023 23:48:28 +0000

Python Script To ssh and Run Multiple Commands in Linux

Every Linux admin wants a python script to ssh and runs multiple commands in Linux. Here we will show and give a python script to run multiple commands on multiple servers and get output in excel.

To run commands by ssh over remote Linux servers python module used is as paramiko and by using paramiko we can run commands on remote Linux servers and even we get output and error messages. So let’s start with the script.

What is Paramiko?

Paramiko is a Python library that provides a means of securely and remotely connecting to and interacting with a device using the SSH (Secure Shell) protocol. It is often used for automating tasks, such as deploying software updates or gathering data from remote servers. Paramiko supports a number of authentication protocols and can be used to connect to a wide range of Linux servers, network switches, and routers. In short which devices your SSH to connect to paramiko is your best friend. It is a popular choice for network administrators and system engineers who need to automate tasks or access remote devices in a secure manner. Even If you are using Ansible without paramiko ansible is also useless because Ansible also uses the Paramiko library to connect to remote servers.

Python Script to SSH and Run Command

Make sure you have all libraries installed on the server or in your Linux system. First, let’s start with preparation.

Preparation

Install pip if not in your machine. Check as per your Linux distro

for example rpm base system

yum install python-pip 
or
yum install python3-pip

for Debian based system

apt install python-pip
or
apt install python3-pip

You can install it according to your distro

Install the python package, and make sure you have internet active on the server

# pip install paramiko

The above python library is enough to connect remote server by ssh but if you want to export results in excel install openpyxl optional package

# pip install openpyxl

To support this python library mostly the time we face issues with the lxml python library because by default it has an older version installed on Linux.

# pip install --upgrade lxml

Finally, we have installed 3 python library

# pip install paramiko
# pip install openpyxl
# pip install --upgrade lxml

Start Scripting

Create a file with any name with .py extension here we will take the server_health.py file.

# vi server_health.py

We are showing commands for the Linux vi editor you can use your IDE or any editor.

For writing in the vi editor press “i” and to save data press the “esc” key then write in the lower left corner “:wq” and press enter to save and exit.

Import Python Modules

First import python modules which are required in the script

import paramiko
from paramiko.ssh_exception import BadHostKeyException, AuthenticationException, SSHException, NoValidConnectionsError
import openpyxl
from os import path,rename

Now first we will write the script in a simple form then we will add a function to use multiple times.

Script Part

host = 'server1'
user = 'MyUserName'
password = 'MySecreteComplexPassword'
cmd = 'systemctl status sshd'
ssh = paramiko.SSHClient()
ssh.set_missing_host_key_policy(paramiko.AutoAddPolicy())
ssh.connect(hostname=host, username=user, password=password)
cmd=cmd
stdin, stdout, stderr = ssh.exec_command(cmd)
print(stdout.read())
print(stderr.read())
ssh.close()

Above script, we have defined 4 variables for the server host or hostname or IP, the user who is able to log in to the server, the password for the user, and cmd or command which we want to run on the remote server.

In the above script, we can see two outputs stdout which is the output of a successful command run, and stderr which is the output of an error in command. We are reading the output and printing them.

How to Run Multiple SSH Command On Remote Linux Machine

Our target is to run multiple commands on a Linux server for this we need to run through the python loop and we need a list of commands. Below is the script for a run multiple commands.

First, we need to convert our script to function and we need cmd list too

def getdata(host,user,password,cmd):
    ssh = paramiko.SSHClient()
    ssh.set_missing_host_key_policy(paramiko.AutoAddPolicy())
    ssh.connect(hostname=host, username=user, password=password)
    cmd=cmd
    stdin, stdout, stderr = ssh.exec_command(cmd)
    #stdout=stdout.read().splitlines()
    ot = stdout.read()
    oterr = stderr.read()
    print("--stdout--")
    print(ot)
    print("--stderr--")
    print(oterr)
    print(type(ot))
    ssh.close()

We have converted a python simple script to a function to use in a python for loop with the list of multiple commands.

# variables 
host = 'server1'
user = 'MyUserName'
password = 'MySecreteComplexPassword'
command = ['systemctl status sshd','systemctl status rsyslog']

# get data from remote host
def getdata(host,user,password,cmd):
    ssh = paramiko.SSHClient()
    ssh.set_missing_host_key_policy(paramiko.AutoAddPolicy())
    ssh.connect(hostname=host, username=user, password=password)
    cmd=cmd
    stdin, stdout, stderr = ssh.exec_command(cmd)
    #stdout=stdout.read().splitlines()
    ot = stdout.read()
    oterr = stderr.read()
    print("--stdout--")
    print(ot)
    print("--stderr--")
    print(oterr)
    print(type(ot))
    ssh.close()
 
# for loop with command list 
def cmdlist(command,host,user,password):
    if len(command) != 0:
        for cmd in command:
            getdata(host,user,password,cmd)
    else:
        print("Command length is 0 -ZERO. Please input atlease 1 command")

cmdlist(command,host,user,password)

Above script, we have changed the cmd variable to command and created a list of commands. And created a for loop with the list of commands and every time we loop we run the get data command which gives the output on each command. We are checking if the length of the command is zero then it will show us a warning for we need to input the command.

Here one question can rise why did not we use && or; to run commands in the same function, reason for that is in the loop data handling will be more complex if you run the command in that manner. But if you want to execute only and output data is not important then you can use && or “;”. For that case, you can add a command variable as below

cmd = 'systemctl status sshd rsyslog; nproc;free -m'

How to Run Multiple SSH Command On Multiple Remote Linux Machines

Now we will run multiple commands in multiple Linux machines for that we need to make our server variable into a list of variables and create a python for loop with the list of hosts or servers or machines.

# variables 
host = ['server1','server2','server3']
user = 'MyUserName'
password = 'MySecreteComplexPassword'
command = ['systemctl status sshd','systemctl status rsyslog']

# get data from remote host
def getdata(host,user,password,cmd):
    ssh = paramiko.SSHClient()
    ssh.set_missing_host_key_policy(paramiko.AutoAddPolicy())
    ssh.connect(hostname=host, username=user, password=password)
    cmd=cmd
    stdin, stdout, stderr = ssh.exec_command(cmd)
    #stdout=stdout.read().splitlines()
    ot = stdout.read()
    oterr = stderr.read()
    print("--stdout--")
    print(ot)
    print("--stderr--")
    print(oterr)
    print(type(ot))
    ssh.close()

# for loop with command list and server list
def cmdlist(command,host,user,password):
    if len(command) != 0:
        for h in host:
            for cmd in command:
                getdata(h,user,password,cmd)
    else:
        print("Command length is 0 -ZERO. Please input atlease 1 command")

cmdlist(command,host,user,password)

In the above script, we have converted the variable host to a list of hosts. and created a loop for the host list. This will go to all hosts and for each host all command run and get us the output.

Export Paramiko Output to an Excel File

As we all know you can not skip Excel or spreadsheet in any job so before someone ask for it export directly to excel with the help of a script. We use the python openpyxl library to export in excel.

def getandcreatewb():
    heading = ("hostname","command","output","Error")
    if path.exists("Health_Result.xlsx"):
        rename("Health_Result.xlsx","Health_Result_old.xlsx")
    workbook = openpyxl.Workbook()
    workbook.create_sheet("result")
    print(workbook.get_sheet_names())
    fsh=workbook.get_sheet_by_name('Sheet')
    workbook.remove_sheet(fsh)
    sheet = workbook["result"]
    sheet.append(heading)
    workbook.save("Health_Result.xlsx")

In the above script we are creating an excel file with the name Health_Result.xlsx if that file exists it renames it to Health_Result_old.xlsx. If you have more space you can rename it with DateTime and create a sheet name result and append a heading “hostname, command, output, Error”.

Here is a complete python script to ssh and run multiple commands in Linux and export in excel.

# variables 
host = ['server1','server2','server3']
user = 'MyUserName'
password = 'MySecreteComplexPassword'
command = ['systemctl status sshd','systemctl status rsyslog']

def getandcreatewb():
    heading = ("hostname","command","output","Error")
    if path.exists("Health_Result.xlsx"):
        rename("Health_Result.xlsx","Health_Result_old.xlsx")
    workbook = openpyxl.Workbook()
    workbook.create_sheet("result")
    print(workbook.get_sheet_names())
    fsh=workbook.get_sheet_by_name('Sheet')
    print(fsh)
    workbook.remove_sheet(fsh)
    sheet = workbook["result"]
    sheet.append(heading)
    workbook.save("Health_Result.xlsx")

# get data from remote host and append to excel workbook
def getdata(host,user,password,cmd):
    ssh = paramiko.SSHClient()
    ssh.set_missing_host_key_policy(paramiko.AutoAddPolicy())
    ssh.connect(hostname=host, username=user, password=password)
    cmd=cmd
    stdin, stdout, stderr = ssh.exec_command(cmd)
    ot = stdout.read()
    oterr = stderr.read()
    heading = ("hostname","command","output","Error")
    data = [(host,cmd,ot,oterr)]
    wb = openpyxl.load_workbook("Health_Result.xlsx")
    sheet = wb["result"]
    for d in data:
        sheet.append(d)
    wb.save("Health_Result.xlsx")
    ssh.close()


# for loop with command list and server list and create workbook
def cmdlist(command,host,user,password):
    if len(command) != 0:
        getandcreatewb()
        for h in host:
            for cmd in command:
                getdata(h,user,password,cmd)
    else:
        print("Command length is 0 -ZERO. Please input atlease 1 command")




cmdlist(command,host,user,password)

In the above script, we are calling create workbook function to our cmdlist loop function and appending our data in the paramiko get data function.

Conclusion

In this article, we have learned how to use paramiko to ssh and run multiple commands by the python script, and the best part we have exported it to excel. Next, we can use argparse to get input from the user and encrypt the password to use in the production environment.

Hope you find this article helpful, If yes share it with your friends.

Linux Directory Structure and 8 Important Directory Explained

explinux — Tue, 03 Jan 2023 19:55:10 +0000

If you are looking for the Linux directory structure this is the right place for your search because here you will get answers for Linux directory structure and an explanation of important directories. You can use this article as a cheat sheet for the Linux directory structure.

Linux Directory Structure

The Linux directory structure is a tree-like hierarchy that is used to organize and store files on a Linux system. The root of the directory tree is represented by the forward slash (/), and all other directories and files are organized beneath it.

Here is a brief overview of some of the main directories that are commonly found in a Linux system:

bin: This directory contains essential binary executables that are needed to start the system and run basic commands.
/boot: This directory contains files that are needed to boot the system, including the Linux kernel, bootloader files, and system configuration files.
/dev: This directory contains device files that represent various devices that are connected to the system, such as printers, hard drives, and terminal devices.
/etc: This directory contains system-wide configuration files and scripts.
/home: This directory contains the home directories for all users of the system. Each user has their own subdirectory under /home, where they can store their personal files and configurations.
/lib: This directory contains libraries that are needed by programs in the /bin and /sbin directories.
/media: This directory is typically used to mount removable storage devices, such as USB drives or CD-ROMs.
/mnt: This directory is used to temporarily mount file systems, such as when performing system maintenance tasks.
/opt: This directory is used to store optional software packages that are not part of the default installation.
/proc: This directory is a virtual file system that contains information about the system’s processes and kernel.
/root: This is the home directory for the system’s root user.
/sbin: This directory contains system binary executables that are used for system maintenance and administration tasks.
/tmp: This directory is used to store temporary files that are created by programs.
/usr: This directory contains shared user data, such as libraries, documentation, and executables for programs that are installed on the system.
/var: This directory contains variable data, such as log files, spool directories, and temporary files that are created by system processes.

22 Linux Commands

22 useful and productive commands

How to Install Python3.8 on Linux

RHEL 7 and some distro come with old python2.7, learn how to install python 3.8

Vi Editor Cheatsheet

Vi editor is the best editor in Linux check the cheat sheet to make your life easier

Brief Explanation for Important Directories

Below is an explanation of some important Linux directories below :

/etc Directory

The /etc directory in Linux is a system-wide configuration directory that contains configuration files and scripts that are used to control the operation of various system programs and services. It is a common location for storing global settings and preferences that apply to the entire system.

Some examples of the types of files that might be found in the /etc directory include:

System-wide configuration files for programs and services, such as the Apache web server or the SSH daemon
System-wide shell scripts that are run at boot time or when certain events occur, such as the rc scripts that are used to start and stop system services
System-wide security and authentication files, such as the passwd and shadow files that store user account information
System-wide environment variables and configuration files for the shell, such as bashrc
System-wide networking configuration files, such as hosts, resolv.conf, and network

The /etc directory is often used as a central location for storing system-wide configuration files because it makes it easy to find and manage all of the configuration files for the system in a single place. However, it is important to be careful when modifying the files in this directory, as changing the wrong settings can cause problems with the system’s operation.

/proc Directory

The /proc directory in Linux is a virtual file system that contains information about the system’s processes and kernel. It is a special kind of file system that does not exist on a physical storage device but is created dynamically by the kernel when the system is booted.

The /proc directory contains a number of files and directories that provide information about the state of the system and its processes. Some examples of the types of files and directories that might be found in /proc include:

/proc/cpuinfo: This file contains information about the system’s CPU, such as its model, speed, and number of cores.
/proc/meminfo: This file contains information about the system’s memory, such as the amount of free and used memory.
/proc/uptime: This file contains information about how long the system has been running since the last boot.
/proc/loadavg: This file contains information about the system’s load average, which is a measure of how busy the system is.
/proc/pid: This directory contains subdirectories for each running process on the system, with the name of each subdirectory corresponding to the process ID of the process. Each subdirectory contains a number of files that provide information about the process, such as its status, memory usage, and other details.

The /proc directory is a useful source of information about the system and its processes, and it can be accessed like any other directory on the system. However, it is important to note that the files in /proc are not stored on a physical storage device, and they may not always contain accurate or up-to-date information.

/bin Directory

The /bin directory in Linux is a directory that contains essential binary executables that are needed to start the system and run basic commands. These executables are used by both users and the system, and they include a wide range of tools and utilities that are necessary for the system to function.

Some examples of the types of executables that might be found in the /bin directory include:

Basic command line utilities, such as ls, cd, mv, and rm
System utilities, such as systemctl and init
Text processing utilities, such as grep, sed, and awk
Network utilities, such as ping and traceroute
File compression and decompression utilities, such as gzip and tar

The /bin directory is one of the directories that is included in the system’s PATH environment variable, which means that the executables it contains can be run from anywhere on the system simply by typing their names on the command line. This makes it convenient to use these tools and utilities without having to specify the full path to the executable file each time.

/sbin Directory

The /sbin directory in Linux is a directory that contains system binary executables that are used for system maintenance and administration tasks. These executables are typically used by system administrators and other users with special privileges, and they include a wide range of tools and utilities that are used to manage and maintain the system.

Some examples of the types of executables that might be found in the /sbin directory include:

System initialization and shutdown utilities, such as init and shutdown
System maintenance utilities, such as fsck and fdisk
Network configuration utilities, such as ifconfig and route
Disk management utilities, such as fdisk and mkfs
Hardware detection and configuration utilities, such as lspci and modprobe

The /sbin directory is typically not included in the system’s PATH environment variable, which means that the executables it contains must be run by specifying the full path to the executable file. This is done to prevent users without special privileges from running these executables by accident, as some of them can have serious consequences if used improperly.

/var Directory

The /var directory in Linux is a directory that contains variable data, such as log files, spool directories, and temporary files that are created by system processes. This directory is used to store data that is likely to change during the normal operation of the system, as opposed to the more static data that is stored in other parts of the file system.

Some examples of the types of files and directories that might be found in the /var directory include:

Log files, such as system logs, application logs, and web server logs
Spool directories, such as the /var/spool/cron directory, which is used to store cron job files
Temporary files, such as those created by the system’s package manager or by certain applications
Cache directories, such as the /var/cache/apt directory, which is used to store package cache files for the APT package manager
Lock files, which are used to prevent multiple processes from accessing the same resource at the same time

The /var/log subdirectory is a particularly important part of the /var directory, as it is used to store log files that can be used to troubleshoot problems with the system. It is a good practice to periodically review the log files in this directory to look for any issues or errors that might need to be addressed.

/lib Directory

The /lib directory in Linux is a directory that contains libraries that are needed by programs in the /bin and /sbin directories. A library is a collection of code that can be used by multiple programs to perform a common set of tasks. By storing libraries in a central location, such as the /lib directory, it is possible to reduce duplication of code and improve the efficiency of the system.

The /lib directory typically contains a variety of libraries, including shared object libraries (files with a .so suffix), static libraries (files with a .a suffix), and kernel modules (files with a .ko suffix). Some examples of the types of libraries that might be found in the /lib directory include:

System libraries, such as those that provide basic system functions, such as memory allocation and input/output operations
Libraries for programming languages, such as the C standard library or the Python standard library
Libraries for specific applications or services, such as libraries for the Apache web server or the MySQL database server

The /lib directory is an important part of the system’s file hierarchy, as it contains libraries that are needed by many of the programs and utilities that are used on the system. It is important to be careful when modifying the files in this directory, as changing the wrong library files can cause problems with the system’s operation.

/boot Directory

The /boot directory in Linux is a directory that contains files that are needed to boot the system, including the Linux kernel, bootloader files, and system configuration files. The /boot directory is typically one of the first directories that is accessed when the system starts up, as it contains the files that are required to load the kernel and start the system.

Some examples of the types of files that might be found in the /boot directory include:

The Linux kernel, which is the core of the operating system and is responsible for managing the system’s hardware and software resources
Bootloader files, such as the GRUB bootloader configuration file and the bootloader stage1 and stage2 files
System configuration files, such as the initrd file, which is used to load initial RAM disk images, and the system.map file, which contains a mapping of kernel symbols to addresses
Kernel modules are pieces of code that can be loaded into the kernel at runtime to add support for specific hardware devices or features

The /boot directory is an important part of the system’s file hierarchy, as it contains the files that are required to boot the system. It is important to be careful when modifying the files in this directory, as changing the wrong boot files can prevent the system from starting up correctly.

/tmp Directory

The /tmp directory in Linux is a directory that is used to store temporary files that are created by programs. These files are usually used to store data that is needed temporarily during the execution of a program, and they are typically deleted by the system or the program when they are no longer needed.

The /tmp directory is a good place to store temporary files because it is typically located on a file system that is specifically designated for temporary storage, such as a ramdisk or a partition with a relatively small amount of storage. This can help to improve the performance of the system by reducing the amount of disk I/O that is required to access the temporary files.

Some examples of the types of temporary files that might be stored in the /tmp directory include:

Temporary files that are created by applications, such as text editors or image editors
Temporary files that are created by the system, such as lock files or pid files
Temporary files that are created by shell scripts or other scripts that are run on the system

The /tmp directory is a good place to store temporary files because it is usually writable by all users on the system, which makes it easy for programs to create and access temporary files. It is important to note that the files in the /tmp directory are not permanently stored, and they may be deleted by the system or by other programs at any time.

Suggestion

Here are a few suggestions if you are a beginner for ways you can continue learning about Linux and its directories:

Explore the different directories on your Linux system and see what types of files and directories are stored in each one. You can use the ls command to list the contents of a directory, and the man command to learn more about the various utilities and commands that are available on the system.
Learn how to navigate the Linux file system using the command line. You can use commands like cd, pwd, and ls to move around the file system, and use wildcards and shell patterns to manipulate files and directories.
Practice using the find command to search for files and directories based on various criteria, such as their name, size, or modification time. This can be a useful skill for locating specific files or directories on the system.
Learn more about the various file system types that are supported by Linux, such as ext2, ext3, ext4, and XFS. Each file system has its own set of features and performance characteristics, and understanding these differences can help you choose the right file system for your needs.

Conclusion

Now we know about Linux directories structure and its usages and importance in Linux Operation systems. Hope this article works for you as a cheat sheet. Share this article with those who are learning and working on Linux.

AppArmor vs SELinux – Quick Comparison with Top 10 Advantages

explinux — Tue, 03 Jan 2023 11:51:33 +0000

If you are looking for a comparison between AppArmor vs SELinux. This article will help you to choose which will fit your criteria. We have taken the top 10 reasons for your consideration between AppArmor vs SELinux.

AppArmor vs SELinux

SELinux

SELinux is a Linux security module that provides mandatory access control (MAC) and allows an administrator to specify fine-grained control over what processes are allowed to do on a system. It is mainly used to protect against malicious attacks and is implemented as a loadable kernel module. SELinux uses policies to define what actions are allowed in the system and supports a wide range of applications. It is mainly used on Red Hat-based systems. We have already covered this topic for more in-depth detail please read What is SELinux.

Related: How to disable SELinux?

AppArmor

AppArmor is a Linux security module that allows an administrator to specify fine-grained control over what programs are allowed to do on a system. It is a mandatory access control (MAC) system that uses profiles to specify what system resources an application is allowed to access. AppArmor is implemented in the Linux kernel and is thus more efficient than other MAC systems that are implemented as loadable kernel modules.

AppArmor is designed to protect against accidental system misconfigurations, rather than malicious attacks. It is mainly used on Debian-based systems and is relatively easy to configure and use compared to other MAC systems such as SELinux. AppArmor is also capable of protecting against certain types of security vulnerabilities, such as buffer overflows.

Top 10 Differences Between AppArmor vs SELinux

AppArmor is a mandatory access control (MAC) system that was originally developed for Linux, while SELinux is another MAC system that was developed by the US National Security Agency (NSA).
AppArmor uses profiles to specify what system resources an application is allowed to access, while SELinux uses policies to define what actions are allowed in the system.
AppArmor is easier to configure and use than SELinux, but SELinux is more powerful and flexible.
AppArmor provides protection at the file system level, while SELinux provides protection at the process level.
AppArmor is implemented in the Linux kernel and is thus more efficient than SELinux, which is implemented as a loadable kernel module.
AppArmor is mainly used on Debian-based systems, while SELinux is mainly used on Red Hat-based systems.
AppArmor supports only a limited set of applications, while SELinux supports a wide range of applications.
AppArmor is less secure than SELinux, as it is easier to bypass its security controls.
AppArmor is mainly used to protect against accidental system misconfigurations, while SELinux is used to protect against malicious attacks.
AppArmor and SELinux can be used together to provide enhanced security for a Linux system.

Top 10 Advantages of AppArmor over Selinux

AppArmor is easier to configure and use than SELinux, making it more suitable for less experienced users.
AppArmor uses profiles to specify what system resources an application is allowed to access, which can be more intuitive for users compared to SELinux’s policies.
AppArmor is implemented in the Linux kernel, making it more efficient than SELinux, which is implemented as a loadable kernel module.
AppArmor is mainly used on Debian-based systems, which are popular with many users.
AppArmor supports a limited set of applications, which can make it easier to manage and maintain.
AppArmor provides protection at the file system level, which can be sufficient for many users.
AppArmor is less complex than SELinux and has a smaller codebase, making it easier to understand and troubleshoot.
AppArmor is less prone to false positives (incorrectly blocking legitimate actions) than SELinux.
AppArmor can be used in conjunction with other security measures, such as firewall rules, to provide enhanced protection for a system.
AppArmor is more lightweight than SELinux and has lower overhead, making it suitable for use on systems with limited resources.

Top 10 Advantages of SELinux over AppArmor

SELinux is a more powerful and flexible security system than AppArmor, as it provides protection at the process level rather than just the file system level.
SELinux supports a wide range of applications, while AppArmor only supports a limited set.
SELinux is more secure than AppArmor, as it is harder to bypass its security controls.
SELinux is mainly used on Red Hat-based systems, which are popular with data centers and production environments.
SELinux policies are more granular and allow for more fine-grained control over system actions compared to AppArmor profiles.
SELinux can be configured to enforce different security policies for different users, groups, and processes, providing a higher level of security.
SELinux can protect against both accidental system misconfigurations and malicious attacks, while AppArmor is mainly focused on protecting against accidental misconfigurations.
SELinux can be used to enforce separation between different domains, such as separating the network and file access, providing an additional layer of security.
SELinux is actively maintained and supported by the Linux community and the US National Security Agency (NSA).
SELinux provides a system-wide security policy, rather than just protecting individual applications, making it more comprehensive in its coverage.

Which one is best between AppArmou vs SELinux

It is difficult to say which is “best” between SELinux and AppArmor, as it ultimately depends on your specific needs and goals. Please consider the below point to choose the best suit for you :

Purpose: SELinux is mainly used to protect against malicious attacks, while AppArmor is mainly used to protect against accidental system misconfigurations. If you are primarily concerned with protecting against malicious attacks, SELinux may be a better choice. If you are mainly concerned with protecting against accidental misconfigurations, AppArmor may be sufficient.
Ease of use: AppArmor is generally easier to configure and use than SELinux, so if you are less experienced with Linux security or do not want to spend a lot of time setting up and maintaining your security system, AppArmor may be a better choice.
Flexibility: SELinux is more flexible than AppArmor, as it provides protection at the process level and supports a wide range of applications. If you need more granular control over system actions or want to protect a wide range of applications, SELinux may be a better choice.
System resources: AppArmor is implemented in the Linux kernel and is more efficient than SELinux, which is implemented as a loadable kernel module. If you are running a system with limited resources, AppArmor may be a better choice.

Conclusion

This comparison of AppArmor vs SELinux will let you decide which one is best for your need. Ultimately, the decision will depend on your specific needs and goals. It is also possible to use both SELinux and AppArmor together to provide enhanced security for your system.

What is SELinux? 20 Advantages of SELinux

explinux — Tue, 03 Jan 2023 10:33:39 +0000

What is SELinux?

SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux) is a Linux kernel security module that provides a security mechanism for supporting access control policies. It was developed by the National Security Agency (NSA) as a way to enhance the security of Linux systems.

SELinux provides mandatory access controls (MAC) in addition to the traditional discretionary access controls (DAC) that are implemented in the Linux kernel. DAC controls are based on the permissions assigned to files and directories, and they allow the owner of a file or directory to determine who has access to it. MAC controls, on the other hand, are based on the security context of a process and allow the system administrator to define more fine-grained access controls.

SELinux was introduced as a way to address the limitations of DAC and provide an additional layer of security to Linux systems. It is especially useful in environments where security is a high priority, such as in government, military, or financial organizations.

While you can use Linux without SELinux, it is generally considered a good idea to use it if your system requires a high level of security. If you do not need the additional security provided by SELinux, you can disable it or run Linux in permissive mode, which allows SELinux to enforce policies but does not block any actions that would violate those policies.

Advantages of SELinux

Here are some benefits of using SELinux on your Linux systems:

Enhanced security: SELinux provides an additional layer of security by enforcing mandatory access controls.
Fine-grained control: SELinux allows you to define very specific access controls based on the security context of a process.
Improved system integrity: SELinux can help prevent unauthorized changes to system files and configurations.
Increased compliance: SELinux can help you meet regulatory requirements for security.
Reduced vulnerabilities: SELinux can help reduce the risk of vulnerabilities in your system by restricting access to sensitive files and processes.
Improved isolation: SELinux can help isolate different processes and prevent them from interfering with each other.
Enhanced auditing: SELinux provides detailed logs of system activity, making it easier to audit and monitor your system.
Improved system stability: SELinux can help prevent malicious or misbehaving processes from disrupting the system.
Enhanced confidentiality: SELinux can help protect sensitive data from being accessed by unauthorized processes.
Improved system availability: SELinux can help prevent denial of service attacks by limiting access to system resources.
Enhanced resilience: SELinux can help prevent attackers from gaining a foothold on your system.
Improved resource utilization: SELinux can help ensure that processes only have access to the resources they need, improving overall system performance.
Enhanced separation of duties: SELinux can help enforce the separation of duties between different users and processes.
Improved traceability: SELinux provides detailed logs of system activity, making it easier to trace the actions of processes.
Enhanced system forensics: SELinux can provide valuable information for forensic investigations.
Improved flexibility: SELinux can be customized to meet the specific security needs of your organization.
Enhanced scalability: SELinux can be used on systems of any size, from small standalone systems to large enterprise environments.
Improved interoperability: SELinux can be used with other security technologies to provide a comprehensive security solution.
Enhanced reliability: SELinux can help prevent system failures and improve overall reliability.
Improved usability: SELinux can be configured to allow users to perform their tasks while still enforcing strict security policies.

Alternatives of SELinux

SELinux is not alone that providing MAC-level security there are many other players in this category. Some alternative options to SELinux for implementing mandatory access controls on Linux systems include:

AppArmor: This is a security extension for the Linux kernel that allows you to specify access controls for programs. It is similar to SELinux in that it provides a way to enforce security policies, but it uses a different syntax and approach.
TOMOYO Linux: This is another security extension for the Linux kernel that provides MAC controls. It was developed in Japan and is used in a number of Linux distributions in Asia.
Grsecurity: This is a set of patches for the Linux kernel that includes a number of security features, including MAC controls. It is not a standalone security module like SELinux or AppArmor, but rather a collection of enhancements to the kernel.
Smack: This is a simple MAC system for Linux that is designed to be easy to use and understand. It is not as feature-rich as SELinux or AppArmor, but it can be a good choice for systems that do not require a high level of security.
GnuTLS: This is a library that provides support for secure communications, including support for X.509 certificates. It can be used as an alternative to SELinux for implementing secure communication channels on a Linux system.

There are many other security tools and frameworks available for Linux that can be used to enhance the security of your system.

Linux Distributions Provides SELinux

Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL)
CentOS
Rocky/ALMA
Fedora
Oracle Linux
Scientific Linux
Ubuntu
Debian
SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES)
OpenSUSE

SELinux is not enabled by default on all of these distributions, but it is usually available as an option that can be enabled during installation or enabled later on. Some distributions, such as RHEL and CentOS, are designed with a focus on security and include SELinux as a key component of their security strategy. Other distributions may not prioritize security as highly but still offer SELinux as an optional security feature.

Conclusion

In this article, we get to know about what is SELinux and its advantages and alternatives. SELinus provides MAC-level security and if you need a security system then you must use it. We can consider other options al well. Hope you Like the article.

Rewind Linux in a Nutshell in 2022

explinux — Fri, 30 Dec 2022 21:18:34 +0000

Linux kernel based Operating systems are one of the most popular open-source operating systems. Every day, new innovations and advances make it even more powerful and secure. As a result, Linux is increasingly becoming the preferred option for businesses, governments, and other organizations needing a reliable and cost-effective operating system. In 2022, we saw major releases in the Linux community. We also witnessed several new developments in security and user experience.

Linux releases in 2022

As the world looks forward to the next generation of Linux releases, the anticipation for what was in store for 2022:

Conclusion

The coming year is sure to be an exciting one as Linux continues to expand and innovate. We are likely to see a whole host of events, releases, and news related to the open-source operating system in 2023. As always, we’ll keep you up-to-date on all of these developments so that you can stay informed about what’s happening in the world of Linux.

Happy New Year 2023

Comparing KVM vs VirtualBox: Which Virtualization Platform Should You Choose?

explinux — Thu, 29 Dec 2022 13:36:40 +0000

KVM vs VirtualBox

Virtualization in terms of Operating systems or admins is the process of creating a virtual Os on top of bare metal like on a single server or laptop creating multiple OS, servers, storage devices, or network resources. It allows data center businesses to make the most of their existing hardware resources by allowing multiple operating systems to run on a single physical device. For Example, if you have one bare metal server you could have 10 VM or servers on them.

KVM (Kernel-based Virtual Machine) is an open-source virtualization technology that allows for the efficient running of multiple virtual machines on a single physical machine. It was developed by Red Hat and is currently supported by a number of Linux distributions, including CentOS, Ubuntu, and Fedora.

VirtualBox is an open-source virtualization software which is developed by Oracle. It is a popular choice for running multiple operating systems on a single machine. Unlike KVM, VirtualBox is available for a variety of operating systems, including Windows, macOS, and Linux. As part of local testing, you might be used this for your project.

Comparing KVM and VirtualBox

When it comes to virtualization, KVM and VirtualBox are two popular choices. However, they have some key differences, which makes it important to compare them before making a decision.

The main difference between KVM and VirtualBox is in their architecture. KVM is a type-1 hypervisor, which means it runs directly on the host machine’s hardware. This allows for greater performance and more efficient resource utilization. On the other hand, VirtualBox is a type-2 hypervisor, which means it runs on top of the host machine’s operating system. This allows for greater flexibility, but may not offer the same performance as KVM.

Reference: – https://www.redhat.com/en/topics/virtualization/what-is-KVM

Another difference between KVM and VirtualBox is in their support for guest operating systems. KVM supports a wide range of guest operating systems, including Windows and Linux, while VirtualBox only supports a limited number of guest operating systems, such as Windows and macOS.

KVM and VirtualBox also differ in their ease of use. KVM requires a certain degree of technical knowledge to set up and configure, while VirtualBox is much easier to use and offers a user-friendly interface.

Advantages of KVM

KVM offers a number of advantages over VirtualBox.

One of the main advantages of KVM is its performance. As a type-1 hypervisor, KVM runs directly on the host machine’s hardware and is able to make use of the physical resources more efficiently. This makes it a better choice for applications that require high performance.

KVM also offers greater scalability than VirtualBox. It can support more virtual machines and more guest operating systems than VirtualBox. This makes it a great choice for businesses looking to scale their virtualization infrastructure.

KVM is also more secure than VirtualBox. It includes a built-in security layer called SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux), which makes it more difficult for malicious actors to gain access to the virtual environment.

Advantages of VirtualBox

VirtualBox also has some advantages over KVM.

One of the main advantages of VirtualBox is its ease of use. It is much easier to set up and configure than KVM, and its user-friendly interface makes it suitable for less technical users. You no need to learn linux to use this .

VirtualBox also offers great flexibility. As a type-2 hypervisor, it can run on top of a wide range of host operating systems, including Windows, macOS, and Linux. This makes it a great choice for users who need to run multiple operating systems on a single machine.

VirtualBox is also more cost-effective than KVM. It is free to use and provides a great way to get started with virtualization without having to invest in expensive hardware.

Disadvantages of KVM

KVM also has some drawbacks.

One of the main drawbacks of KVM is that it requires a certain degree of technical knowledge to set up and configure. This makes it unsuitable for non-technical users. You need to learn some basic linux to use KVM .

KVM also has limited support for guest operating systems. It only supports limux based operating systems, such as Windows and Linux. This makes it a less attractive option for users who need to run multiple operating systems on a single machine.

Disadvantages of VirtualBox

VirtualBox also has some drawbacks.

One of the main drawbacks of VirtualBox is its performance. As a type-2 hypervisor, it runs on top of the host machine’s operating system, which can lead to decreased performance. This makes it a less attractive choice for applications that require high performance.

VirtualBox also has limited scalability. It can only support a limited number of virtual machines and guest operating systems. This makes it unsuitable for businesses looking to scale their virtualization infrastructure.

Finally, VirtualBox is less secure than KVM. It does not include the same built-in security layer as KVM and is thus more vulnerable to malicious actors.

Pricing Comparison of KVM and VirtualBox

When it comes to pricing, KVM and VirtualBox have different models.

KVM is free to use, but requires additional hardware resources, such as servers and storage, which can be costly. On the other hand, VirtualBox is free to use and does not require additional hardware resources.

However, businesses looking to implement virtualization should also consider the cost of the software licenses. KVM does not require any software licenses, while VirtualBox does. This is an additional cost that should be taken into account when comparing the two platforms.

Security Comparison of KVM and VirtualBox

When it comes to security, KVM and VirtualBox have some important differences.

KVM includes a built-in security layer called SELinux (Security-Enhanced Linux) that makes it difficult for malicious actors to gain access to the virtual environment. On the other hand, VirtualBox does not include such a security layer and is thus more vulnerable to attack.

In addition, KVM is more secure when it comes to data privacy. It encrypts data stored in the virtual environment, while VirtualBox does not. This makes KVM a better choice for businesses looking to keep their data secure.

Choosing the Right Virtualization Platform

When it comes to choosing the right virtualization platform, it is important to consider the needs of your business.

If you are looking for a platform that offers high performance and scalability, KVM is the better choice. It runs directly on the host machine’s hardware and can support more virtual machines and guest operating systems than VirtualBox.

On the other hand, if you are looking for a platform that is easy to use and does not require additional hardware resources, VirtualBox is the better choice. Its user-friendly interface makes it suitable for less technical users, and it is free to use.

Conclusion

In conclusion, KVM and VirtualBox are two popular virtualization platforms. They both have their own advantages and disadvantages, and the right choice for your business will depend on your individual needs. KVM is a better choice for businesses looking for high performance and scalability, while VirtualBox is a better choice for businesses looking for an easy-to-use platform that does not require additional hardware resources.

Before making a decision, it is important to compare KVM and VirtualBox to determine which platform is the best fit for your business. This will ensure that you make the right choice and get the most out of your virtualization experience.